In the 18th century, the Nordic states managed strike a good balance in international politics, but the revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars put an end to that relative stability.

Sweden lost the last of its German holdings. In 1809, eastern Sweden was conquered by Russia, after which it became the partially autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland.

In turn, Sweden captured Norway from Denmark in 1814. Later, following a successful uprising, the Norwegians came to enjoy a highly independent position, albeit within the personal union with Sweden.

However, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which had been re-colonised in the 18th century, remained Danish. The Nordic Region had new borders.

Commercialisation and industrialisation

Great advances were made in agriculture in the 18th century. New farming methods and extensive privatisation of the land meant that it was possible to increase production.

In Denmark, changes to the property system meant that agriculture was increasingly based on freeholders, just as in the rest of the Nordic Region.

Populations grew across the whole of Europe, and demand for food increased. The early stages of industrialisation accelerated economic growth in the mid- to late-19th century.

Some of the most important branches of Nordic industrialisation were timber and pulp in Finland and Sweden, metals and chemical/technical industries in Sweden and Norway, food production in Denmark, and fisheries in Norway and Iceland.

As a result of the industrialisation and liberalisation of international trade, the Nordic Region became more closely tied to the rest of Europe.

Democratisation

The commercialisation of agriculture and industrialisation brought about new social conditions and new social classes, such as agricultural labourers, industrial workers, civil servants and capital-owners.

The new social reality corresponded less and less to the old political forms. The emergence of modern, democratic political systems progressed at different rates in the different countries. In Norway, the Eidsvoll Constitution of 1814 brought about significant enfranchisement for adult males, and strengthened the position of the parliament, Stortinget.

In Denmark, absolutism fell following peaceful protest, and was succeeded by a relatively democratic constitution in 1849. In Sweden, the parliament of the four estates was replaced by an elected parliament in 1866.

A party system emerged early on in Denmark and Norway. However, the idea that the government's composition should be determined by the parliamentary majority – i.e. parliamentarianism – was still not considered self-evident.

Liberal groups campaigned against the forces of conservatism, calling for greater democracy. Parliamentarianism was introduced in Norway in 1884, in Denmark in 1901, but not until 1918 in Sweden.

Universal suffrage for men and women came even later – between 1906 in Finland and 1921 in Sweden. Nordic political systems since this time have been very similar, and all are based on a multi-party parliamentary system.

Nationalism redraws the map

Modern nationalism emerged in Europe in the period following the French Revolution. The European peoples began to identify their unique national characteristics, and each group was almost obliged to constitute a state of its own – a nation state.

Nationalism was also rife in the Nordic Region, and brought about major changes, especially after the mid-19th century.

In this context, the mixed Danish and German population in Schleswig-Holstein, which had existed in a state of harmony for centuries, now became a source of conflict.

When Denmark tried to assimilate Schleswig, the German states, led by Prussia, united to defeat the Danes in the 1864 War. Denmark was forced to cede the duchies.

At the same time, a strong sense of nationalism developed in Iceland – and gradually, through peaceful means, it managed to acquire greater autonomy. Iceland finally became a sovereign state in 1918, although it remained part of a personal union with Denmark until 1944.

Finland's limited autonomy under Russian rule worked reasonably well until the late 19th century. However, in the face of rising Russian nationalism and the increasing attempts at Russification, a new Finnish nationalism emerged – although this was complicated by the fact that the Finns consisted of both Finnish and Swedish speakers. In Finland, the desire for independence did lead to bloodshed, including the murder of the Russian governor Bobrikov in 1904.

Finland seceded from Russia during the Russian Revolution in 1917, and its status as a republic was accepted by the new Bolshevik regime.

Both Swedish and Finnish became official languages. Åland, which is completely Swedish-speaking, was granted autonomy in 1922.

The Norwegian–Swedish union also functioned relatively well until the rising nationalism of the late 19th century increased tensions.

The atmosphere heated up when, in 1905, the Norwegians unilaterally declared the union unworkable. However, the Swedes and Norwegians entered into negotiations and ultimately agreed upon a peaceful dissolution.

The relatively peaceful outcomes of struggles over nationality in the Nordic Region differentiate this region from many others in the world, and are typical of the low level of violence that has epitomised Nordic political culture in recent centuries.